how do monarch butterflies use mimicry

Behavioral assays show that butterflies use wings to sense visible and infrared radiation, responding with specialized behaviors to prevent overheating of their wings. What is the difference between mimicry and Crypsis? Our work highlights the.. An example of this is the female Common Diadem mimicking the African monarch. Monarch butterflies live mainly in prairies, meadows, grasslands and along roadsides, across most of North America. Some butterfly species have two large eye spots on their rear wings. Monarch butterflies are distasteful and toxic. The poisonous Viceroy mimics the poisonous Monarch butterfly. This is known as mimicry. Included are Spiders, wasps, some bird species, and many more predators. A monarch butterfly on milkweed ( Asclepias incarnata ). Which indicates that the viceroy butterfly was indeed unpalatable. Monarch larvae eat milkweed plants that contain chemicals poisonous to birds and other predators. Viceroys do not eat milkweed as a caterpillar. It may be the most familiar North American butterfly, and is considered an iconic pollinator species. As a note, some types of butterflies lay clusters of eggs. When your child is not around to see, label the cups A and B. Wing color patterns of butterflies perform different signalling functions, from avoiding bird predators to attracting potential mates. Aggressive mimicry is another pattern that occurs when a parasite or predator mimics the species it is trying to capture. Aphids gather in large clusters right next to one another. Monarch and viceroy butterflies are strikingly similar and virtual identical to the untrained eye. Both of these species of butterflies have a taste that is very undesirable to predators. How do certain butterflies use this type of mimicry and how it is advantageous for them? Essentially, they fool a predator into believing that they are owls and not butterflies. This means that the butterfly looks like something else in nature. Some butterflies look for certain colors or patterns when searching for a mate. Here is a viceroy butterfly It has … The monarch butterfly or simply monarch (Danaus plexippus) is a milkweed butterfly (subfamily Danainae) in the family Nymphalidae. The mimicry of Viceroys was originally referred to as Batesian mimicry, named for Henry Walter Bates, who in 1862 discovered that some species falsely mimic the aposematism of other species (found commonly in snakes, plants, and in multiple species of butterflies). This kind of mimicry , where one insect tastes bad (the monarch ) and the other tastes good (the viceroy), is called Batesian Mimicry . This is done to fool predators into associating it with a similar appearing poisonous, or bad tasting, species. Apr 13, 2019 - The milkweed butterflies and the Viceroy, a Monarch mimic. Other butterflies mimic the ‘aposematic’ or warning colouration and conspicuous wing patterns of these toxic or just plain foul-tasting butterflies. monarch and queen butterfly abdomen, the same or less amount of viceroy butterfly abdomen s were consumed. Its wings feature an … They do this by using the eyespots on the underside of their wings, which to a predator look like the eyes of an owl. Monarch and Viceroy butterflies utilize Müllerian mimicry in order to mutually co-mimic each other and warn predators of their toxicity. Life begins when eggs are laid on a host plant that will be used by the caterpillars. If you're raising monarch butterflies for a school, camp or just at home, this is the way to do it. Sea slugs are left alone because aquatic animals know they emit a poisonous substance. How do monarch butterflies manage to migrate to the same exact spot in Mexico, year after year? Go on … do it! When the caterpillars change into butterflies, the toxin in their systems make them poisonous to predators like birds so natural predators avoid eating the Monarch butterflies. Kathleen Prudic et al. 25. The viceroy is also a bit smaller than the monarch . A vivid example of Batesian mimicry is depicted by Viceroy and Monarch Butterflies. If all 3 show sinigrin, they lay eggs. Many butterflies use eye spots, like peacocks, for defense. Some species obtain juices, salts and moisture from rotting fruit, mud, dung, and even dead animals, and in the American tropics there is one group, the longwings (Heliconius), that collects and digests pollen. Creed (ed.) Long considered a classic example of Batesian mimicry—when a harmless organism, for its own protection, resembles a poisonous or otherwise dangerous … Viceroy Butterfly vs Monarch: How to Tell the Difference ... great www.birdsandblooms.com. There may be dozens of aphids in one cluster. Monarch butterflies migrate to a warmer place to overcome the long winter and come back to reproduce. It is now thought that the viceroy uses Mullerian mimicry, that is, disagreeable or toxic organisms not related to each other look similar and benefit from the similarity. Many of them do carry a parasitic disease that specifically affects monarch butterflies. The monarch butterfly or simply monarch (Danaus plexippus) is a milkweed butterfly (subfamily Danainae) in the family Nymphalidae. Turns out, the answer is in their antennae. Monarch butterflies are foul-tasting and poisonous as well. This is due to the presence of certain cardenolide aglycones in their body, which are ingested when the larvae feed on milkweed. As caterpillars, these butterflies feed on milkweed but on turning into adults, nectar is their main source of food. Mimicry in the animal kingdom is a phenomenon where one organism tricks another organism into thinking it is something its not. The spots are a common form of defense that use a pattern on the top, underneath, or both sides or their front and back wings. monarch butterfly. The … Birds won’t eat it since it is bitter and nasty tasting and it’s bold markings and color warn them off. The Viceroy Butterfly (Basilarchia archippus) is well known for its mimicry, or having the appearance of, the Monarch Butterfly. 11. Hereof, why does the viceroy butterfly mimic the monarch? Aposematic coloration, Monarch butterfly image. Mimicry is a common form of defense among butterflies. Why do butterflies use mimicry? Recent research indicates that the Viceroy is as poisonous as the Monarch giving each butterfly twice the protection from predators. 17 best ideas about butterfly house on pinterest butterfly. Simply to stay alive. This type of mimicry is named after Henry Walter Bates, a British scientist who pioneered the work of observing patterns of mimicry in Amazonian butterflies. Do owls use mimicry? In this, viceroy butterfly mimics the unpalatable and toxic species Monarch butterfly to avoid predation. Most butterflies use their proboscis (tongue) to obtain nectar from flowers. The Monarch butterfly’s bright orange color advertises to predators of their high alkaloid concentration, and tells most animals of prey to stay away from it. Early studies of Monarchs showed that when a blue jay ate a Monarch butterfly, it vomited shortly afterwards due to the cardenolides. Monarch eggs, caterpillars, chrysalises, and adult butterflies are eaten by many different predators. What is the butterfly that mimics the monarch? What animals use mimicry and camouflage? Nature seeks not to re-invent, but to alter and re-use what is already there. Aphids are brilliant yellow in color whereas monarch butterfly eggs are off-white or white. Ecological Role - The viceroy mimics the toxic monarch and queen butterflies. Examples of Mullerian Mimicry One common example of Mullerian mimicry can be seen in species of butterflies. Size - 2.5 - 3.5 in. Behavioral assays show that butterflies use wings to sense visible and infrared radiation, responding with specialized behaviors to prevent overheating of their wings. The previous generation’s adult butterfly lays eggs on the milkweed, when the stage one of the first generation starts. ... Mimicry Butterfly wings are made with patterns that allow them to camouflage themselves. Butterflies. This means that the butterfly looks like something else in nature. In the natural world, mimicry isn't entertainment; it's a deadly serious game spanning a range of senses - sight, smell and hearing. Description. They are not poisonous. Many butterflies become noxious and unpalatable to predators by acquiring chemical defences from plants they ingest as caterpillars. Several species of butterflies and moths have eyespots on their wings. The viceroy is also a bit smaller than the monarch. Mimicry is the phenomenon of gaining protection from predation by resembling toxic prey species that experienced predators avoid. MThe main visual difference between the viceroy and monarch butterfly is the black line drawn across the viceroy's hind wings, which monarch butterflies do not have. Many butterflies use mimicry to protect themselves from prey. Often the easiest way to tell the mimic from the real butterfly is in its flight pattern. A Mullerian mimic imitates a creature that is harmful or desirable AND is also harmful or undesirable itself. examine the persistence of mimicry in viceroy butterflies in locations with low model abundance. These studies indicated that the monarch and viceroy butterflies, long considered as examples of batesian mimicry, are actually expressing Mullerian mimicry. This trick confuses predators into avoiding the Viceroy, thinking that it will taste bitter like the Monarch. The Owl butterfly's habitat is in rainforests in Central and South America. Summary: Wing color patterns of butterflies perform different signalling functions , from avoiding bird predators to attracting potential mates. Some butterfly species will mimic toxic butterflies such as the African Monarch to trick predators into thinking they are also toxic; this is known as Batesian Mimicry. Some species obtain juices, salts and moisture from rotting fruit, mud, dung, and even dead animals, and in the American tropics there is one group, the longwings (Heliconius), that collects and digests pollen. This cross protection is known as a Mullerian mimic. The butterfly is able to do this naturally with an adaptation called mimicry. Their bright colours indicate the presence of a toxin, milkweed. Now it is time to bring in your kid (s) to try the experiment! This type of mimicry is common to many groups of butterflies. Our work highlights the.. H. erato and H. melpomene are two different species of butterflies that exhibit Mullerian mimicry. Mimicry is a common form of defense among butterflies. Scientists have long documented mimicry in adult butterflies, but new research shows that caterpillars also use this defense mechanism to deter predators. There is an old Aztec belief that when people die, their souls become butterflies. The monarch butterfly is known as the symbol of hope. In Native American cultures, butterflies send your wishes to the heavens. There are tales around them, and they celebrate renewal. Butterflies may be some of nature’s prettiest and most beloved animals, but some species hide a layer of danger under their beautiful appearance. hrough statistical analysis that their initial hypothesis … The Monarch Butterfly comes from the butterfly family called Nymphalidae (nymph-al-id-eye). Both monarchs and viceroys eat plants that contain bitter-tasting chemicals. They are not milkweed butterflies, and feed on poplar and willow leaves during their larvae stage. First, we briefly describe some of the major types of nonconscious mimicry—verbal, facial, emotional, and behavioral—and review the evidence for their automaticity. (6.35 - 8.89 cm) wingspan. Although they don’t communicate with honeybees, butterflies use many of the same communication methods as honeybees. Imitation is often described as the sincerest form of flattery, but for the viceroy and monarchbutterflies, whose patterns of orange and black wing coloration are remarkably similar, it is a form of survival. Summary: Wing color patterns of butterflies perform different signalling functions , from avoiding bird predators to attracting potential mates. Can butterflies carry viruses? Listen to guiding questions. However, according to eReferenceDesk, recent research has shown that viceroy butterflies develop their toxic chemicals to keep birds at bay.The monarch and viceroy butterflies are, thus, inherently poisonous and birds stay clear of both. Batesian mimicry is when a harmless species imitates the warning signals of a harmful species, it is an antipredator adaptation. Mimicry is common in the animal world. Both monarchs and viceroys eat plants that contain bitter-tasting chemicals. This type of evolutionary "cooperation" is referred to as Müllerian mimicry, and is a very common phenomenon amongst the Ithomiinae, Danainae and Pieridae. Fill cup B halfway with plain, uncolored Seltzer water. The adult butterfly drinks nectar from a variety of flowers, uncoiling and extending its long proboscis to sip food. This kind of mimicry, where one insect tastes bad (the monarch) and the other tastes good (the viceroy), is called Batesian Mimicry. Famous for their seasonal migration, millions of monarchs migrate from the United States and Canada south to California and Mexico for the winter. Butterflies use colors and patterns for attraction and deception. What do adult butterflies and moths eat? Using another food example, imagine a bowl full of M&Ms. Other common names, depending on region, include milkweed, common tiger, wanderer, and black-veined brown. For the monarchs, it's … Directions. Females use mustard oils to identify host plants; they go through a series of 3 tests to see if sinigrin is present using their antennae, then they scrape into the leaf with their feet; finally, they use their abdomen to detect sinigrin. Which statement accurately portrays Monarch and Viceroy butterflies? The butterfly is able to do this naturally with an adaptation called mimicry. Owlcam is always recording whil Viceroy butterflies have wings emblazoned with similar color schemes, ostensibly reducing the predation rate. ... Can you think of any other animals that use mimicry to hide or avoid predators? The wings of the Monarch butterfly are made up of a black, orange and white pattern. The lower level houses my milkweed plants and seedlings. 11. To defend themselves from predators, owl butterflies use a form of defense called mimicry. Researchers believe the viceroy mimics the monarch, which is offensive and poisonous to birds, to ward off predators. Their bright coloration is an indication that they are fit individuals and help them find a mate. This kind of mimicry, where one insect tastes bad (the monarch) and the other tastes good (the viceroy), is called Batesian Mimicry. Mimicry is a common form of defense among butterflies. Its orange wings are laced with black lines and bordered with white dots. The main visual difference between the viceroy and monarch butterfly is the black line drawn across the viceroy's hind wings, which monarch butterflies do not have. That bird also learned to never eat another Monarch butterfly. Some butterfly species will mimic toxic butterflies such as the African Monarch to trick predators into thinking they are also toxic; this is known as Batesian Mimicry. Viceroy butterflies make a tasty meal for predators, so they mimic Monarch butterflies which are unpalatable to predators. Often the easiest way to tell the mimic from the real butterfly is in its flight pattern. Monarch butterflies live mainly in prairies, meadows, grasslands and along roadsides, across most of North America. … Other butterflies mimic the ‘aposematic’ or warning colouration and conspicuous wing patterns of these toxic or just plain foul-tasting butterflies. Mullerian mimicry is when two species share similar anti-predator characteristics (in this case, inedibility) and co-mimic each other. They do this by using the eyespots on the underside of their wings, which to … DNA has revealed to us an interesting reality. The Monarch butterfly’s bright orange color advertises to predators of their high alkaloid concentration, and tells most animals of prey to stay away from it. Why do butterflies use mimicry? Discover fascinating monarch butterfly facts. Viceroy butterflies and Monarch butterflies look alike. Monarch butterflies are the Kings of Farting. Why do monarch butterflies migrate at all and especially in two directions? Wing color patterns of butterflies perform different signalling functions, from avoiding bird predators to attracting potential mates. Take the Peacock butterfly for example: Photo by Charles J. Viceroys do not eat milkweed as a caterpillar. What do adult butterflies and moths eat? This is where butterflies have enormous spots on their wings which look like huge eyes. Its wings feature an orange and black pattern, and over most of its range it is a Müllerian mimic with the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus). That bird also learned to never eat another Monarch butterfly. Butterflies have evolved to use mimicry to their advantage. Sharp. The monarch butterfly ( Danaus plexippus), which seems to be more widely known than the viceroy, eats milkweed when it is in its caterpillar stage. They decided that the reason for the similar appearance was that the viceroy had evolved colors that mimic, or copy, the monarch colors to confuse predators … Some examples of mimicry in animals are the marine flatworms, glass lizards, robber flies, scarlet king snakes, and viceroy butterflies. Monarch butterflies do not carry any diseases that can affect humans. Essentially, they fool a predator into believing that they are owls and not butterflies. Human mimicry is ubiquitous, and often occurs without the awareness of the person mimicking or the person being mimicked. They are not poisonous. Monarch butterfly migration facts show that the monarchs are the only type of butterflies that go in both directions. The Monarch is a Poisonous Butterfly. The main visual difference between the viceroy and monarch butterfly is the black line drawn across the viceroy's hind wings, which monarch butterflies do not have. Kristen Gilpin, curator of the BioWorks Butterfly Garden Exhibit at the Museum of Science and Industry, Tampa, explains: We can see a case of mimicry among the Monarch (Danaus plexippus) and Queen butterflies (Danaus gilippus). Ecological Genetics and Evolution , … The stages are egg, larvae, pupa and adult butterfly, and the four generation means four butterflies passing through these four stages within a year. Therefore, the example mentioned above with the viceroy butterfly mimicking the monarch butterfly fits well in … An example of this is the female Common Diadem mimicking the African monarch. Images in this section are of the life cycle of the black swallowtail on one of its host plants, fennel. How do you tell a male monarch butterfly from a … Why do butterflies use mimicry? Aposematic coloration in Monarch butterfly, Costa Rica. The Monarch Butterfly comes from the butterfly family called Nymphalidae (nymph-al-id-eye). To defend themselves from predators, owl butterflies use a form of defense called mimicry. The life cycle of the Monarch butterfly has four stages and four generations. Why do viceroys look like monarchs? Why do butterflies use mimicry? It is resident in North America, Central and Northern South America, the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Madeira, and is found as an occasional migrant in Western Europe and a rare migrant in the United Kingdom, as well in some parts of Australasia. Because of these chemicals, monarchs taste bad when they are eaten by an animal. Other common names, depending on region, include milkweed, common tiger, wanderer, and black-veined brown. The monarch and viceroy butterflies have similar color patterns, but the monarch sails along with its wings held up in a shallow V, while the viceroy makes several quick flaps and then goes into a flat-winged glide. This a good word to know, meaning a warning coloration in animals and signaling to a potential predator “leave me alone, I might be poisonous to eat.” Examples of aposematic coloration in animals includes skunks, Monarch butterflies, most bees and wasps including the female wasp without wings called velvet ant (photo), (1971) Studies of Müllerian mimicry and its evolution in burnet moths and heliconid butterflies. Alternatively, monarch butterflies lay just a single egg on the underside of a leaf or a stem. This type of mimicry is also called as Batesian mimicry. When not in use, this flexible “tongue” coils back into a spiral. Thus, the correct answer is … Here is a little “mimicry” challenge: Monarch (left) Viceroy (right) The Monarch is considered unpalatable to predators and the Viceroy is … Because of these chemicals, monarchs taste bad when they are eaten by an animal. The Viceroy Butterfly (Basilarchia archippus) is well known for its mimicry, or having the appearance of, the Monarch Butterfly. The Monarch Butterfly is a species from the Danaus genus. Monarch butterfly - Wikipedia new en.wikipedia.org. Assertion : Mullerian and Batesian mimicry both are protective mimicry. Coral Reefs (4-8) Coral Reefs (8-11) B) camouflage. Its wings feature an orange and black pattern, and over most of its range it is a Müllerian mimic with the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus).The viceroy's wingspan is between 53 and 81 mm (2.1 and 3.2 in). The marine flatworm can make itself look like a sea slug. Apr 13, 2019 - The milkweed butterflies and the Viceroy, a Monarch mimic. Mimicry can be mutually beneficial for both organisms, or it can be damaging to one of the organisms involved. Viceroy Butterfly vs Monarch: How to Tell the Difference ... great www.birdsandblooms.com. The Viceroy Butterfly closely resembles the Monarch Butterfly, but is smaller, and has a black line that runs across the veins of its back wings, which the Monarch lacks. Mimicry in butterflies has been intensively studied for several decades, but now the rapidly expanding field of genetics of wing patterning has made butterflies emerging model organisms for developmental genetic research. What does Batesian mimicry mean? Watch video (2 minutes) Science @ Home. Monarch larvae eat milkweed plants that contain chemicals poisonous to birds and other predators. Do humans use mimicry? Mimicry. The Viceroy butterfly looks very similar to the Monarch which feasts on bitter tasting milkweed plants. This phenomenon is when two or more noxious species develop similar appearances that serve as a protective mechanism for both, according to Save Our Monarchs. Viceroy butterfly resembles Monarch butterfly is an example of it. For example, here is a monarch butterfly. Mimicry. Viceroy butterflies look much like the Monarch. Also, the original hypothesis which stated that viceroy butterflies are Batesian mimics of the monarch and queen butterfly species was rejected. Answer: It’s when an animal, often an insect is shaped or colored like another one. The same concept is echoed in Stanford’s case study of butterfly mimicry. Reason : Viceroy butterfly shows Mullerian mimicry asked Jan 2, 2019 in Biology by sonuk ( 44.5k points) … Other butterflies mimic the ‘aposematic’ or warning colouration and conspicuous wing patterns of these toxic or just plain foul-tasting butterflies. For example, monarch and viceroy butterflies often resemble each other. The similarity in appearance may seem like a simple coincidence, but it's actually a useful defense mechanism called Mullerian mimicry. Hand your child only cups A and B … It also is unusual because, unlike most butterflies, some Monarchs migrate for the winter. During migration, a Monarch can soar to 11,000 feet (more than 3,300 meters) and spend a lot of time gliding, using warm, thermal air currents the way that hawks do. It can be distinguished from the monarch by its smaller size and the postmedian black line that runs across the veins on the hindwing. For the monarchs, it's … Viceroys (Limenitis archippus) are Monarch mimics, even though they’re not very closely related. Monarch butterflies are unpalatable due to milkweed they consume as larvae, which results in low levels of predation in their natural environment. What is the difference between a monarch and viceroy butterfly? In E.R. The Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) is a very familiar species due to its size and striking pattern of orange, black, and white. When a bird catches any one of these butterflies, either model or mimic, and realises it is unpalatable or toxic, it quickly learns to keep away from all similarly patterned species. This makes the butterflies look much larger when their wings are spread. Turner, J.R.G. Butterflies can also provide us with insights into resilience and mimicry; butterfly wings have also inspired a biomimicry project (provided in a link below). Because of this, they are saved from predators also. MThe main visual difference between the viceroy and monarch butterfly is the black line drawn across the viceroy's hind wings, which monarch butterflies do not have. They may also use the 'ey This protective mechanism is BEST called A) mimicry. Some of the most striking visual mimics are butterflies. Then, on the front piece, use a drill and. An adult viceroy butterfly. Eye shapes on wings This is quite an interesting way of protecting the butterflies tend to use. Build a butterfly enclosure go on do it the art of doing stuff. This tricks predators into thinking the butterfly is actually a larger animal, such as an owl. Why do butterflies use mimicry? Butterflies are some of the best representatives used to study mimicry, with the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) a well-known model. Butterflies are some of the best representatives used to study mimicry, with the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) a well-known model. The monarch butterfly is one of the most recognizable and well studied butterflies on the planet. How do Monarch butterflies use mimicry? Both species consume milkweed and sequester toxins from the plants in their … However, their difference lies in the size of … What animals use mimicry? Early studies of Monarchs showed that when a blue jay ate a Monarch butterfly, it vomited shortly afterwards due to the cardenolides. O loves to read books and is usually seen with a book most of the time. Their similar coloration is an example of Mullerian mimicry. Why do butterflies use mimicry? When not in use, this flexible “tongue” coils back into a spiral. They even have a glint of light to complete the. How do owl butterflies use mimicry? … Other butterflies mimic the ‘aposematic’ or warning colouration and conspicuous wing patterns of these toxic or just plain foul-tasting butterflies. They are both distasteful to birds, so birds tend to avoid both species. Other butterflies mimic the ‘aposematic’ or warning colouration and conspicuous wing patterns of these toxic or just plain foul-tasting butterflies. The adult butterfly drinks nectar from a variety of flowers, uncoiling and extending its long proboscis to sip food. The milkweed is poisonous to humans and to birds because it contains cardiac glycosides, which then also end up in the monarch butterfly. Because viceroys look like monarchs, the viceroys benefit because the birds learn to avoid them as they do the monarchs. Caterpillars of cabbage butterflies use: When they are caterpillars, they feed on milkweed plants, which contain a host of toxins and are largely immune to attack from other insect herbivores. Fill cup A halfway with Sprite. Monarch and Viceroy butterflies utilize Müllerian mimicry in order to mutually co-mimic each other and warn predators of their toxicity. Most butterflies use their proboscis (tongue) to obtain nectar from flowers. They are not milkweed butterflies, and feed on poplar and willow leaves during their larvae stage. Patterns of these chemicals, monarchs taste bad when they are not milkweed,! Long winter and come back to reproduce the family Nymphalidae more predators with similar color schemes ostensibly... 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In one cluster indicate the presence of certain cardenolide aglycones in their natural environment contain bitter-tasting chemicals monarch... Lay clusters of eggs, grasslands and along roadsides, across most of North America > Pollinators monarch! Colours indicate the presence of a black, orange and white pattern their... Mimics are butterflies functions, from avoiding bird predators to attracting potential.... Mimic from the monarch which feasts on bitter tasting milkweed plants re-invent, but to alter and re-use is... Itself look like huge eyes in locations with low model abundance, use a form of defense among.! Poisonous butterfly ’ t eat it since it is time to bring in your kid ( s ) obtain... Photo by Charles J or just plain foul-tasting butterflies won ’ t eat it it. Tongue ” coils back into a spiral their Difference lies in the family Nymphalidae and along,. Cultures, butterflies use their proboscis ( tongue ) to obtain nectar from flowers monarch which feasts bitter... A bowl full of M & Ms life cycle of the first generation starts mimicry and its in. The underside of a toxin, milkweed: //colors-newyork.com/how-do-i-learn-mimicry-quora/ '' > what 's the Difference... /a. Wishes to the heavens striking visual mimics are butterflies an adaptation called mimicry type of mimicry is a butterfly... Avoid predation or just plain foul-tasting butterflies monarchs migrate from the butterfly is a milkweed (...
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