New DNA Analysis Redirects the Cradle of Indo-Europeans, Sheds Light on Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/hwelh- - WiktionaryMitochondrial DNA lineages associated with the Bronze Age Indo-Europeans The descendant of Proto-Germanic. The Sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank has suggested that the Yuezhi, the Wusun, the Dayuan, the Kangju and the people of Yanqi, could have been Tocharian-speaking. During the 19th century, the vast majority of linguistic work was devoted to reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European or its daughter proto-languages such as Proto-Germanic, and most of the current techniques of historical linguistics (e.g. the comparative method and the method of internal reconstruction) were developed as a result. [273][274], Evidence of proto-Thracians or proto-Dacians in the prehistoric period depends on the remains of material culture. The Indo-European expansion into Europe is said to have started with the expansion of Corded ware culture from around 3000 BCE. (2015) also found close autosomal genetic relationship between peoples of Corded Ware culture and Sintashta culture. Subsequently Indo-European split into four branches ca. [59], From the very beginning of Indo-European studies, there have been attempts to link the Indo-European languages genealogically to other languages and language families. One is that they came with Phrygians from the west, or with the Mitanni from the east, and took over from the non-Indo-European speaking Urartians, who were previously dominant in this area. The position of Albanian is not completely clear, from an insufficiency of evidence. Thus equipped, the Proto-Indo-Europeans spread out over much of Eurasia in the following centuries. [web 29] Employing "lexical periodization", Alinei arrives at a timeline deeper than even that of Colin Renfrew's Anatolian hypothesis. "[30], Mathieson et al. Jahrtausend v. Chr", "Rapid radiation of the inner Indo-European languages: an advanced approach to Indo-European lexicostatistics", "An Overview of the Andronovo Culture: Late Bronze Age Indo-Iranians in Central Asia", "The Archaeology of Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Anatolian: Locating the Split", "Talking Neolithic: Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives on how Indo-European was Implemented in Southern Scandinavia", "The emergence of Bronze Age chariots in eastern Europe", "Twenty-first century clouds over Indo-European homelands", "The genomic ancestry of the Scandinavian Battle Axe Culture people and their relation to the broader Corded Ware horizon", "The Forgotten Child of the Wider Corded Ware Family: Russian Fatyanovo Culture in Context", "Royal "Chariot" Burials of Sanauli near Delhi and Archaeological Correlates of Prehistoric Indo-Iranian Languages", University of British Columbia, Department of Asian Studies, "Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area", "Autochthonous Aryans? The term "Celtic" was first used to describe this language group by Edward Lhuyd in 1707.[244]. the Yamnaya people and the related cultures, seem to have been a mix from Eastern European hunter-gatherers; and people related to the Near East,[87] i.e. However, Eric P. Hamp suggests that Phrygian was related to Italo-Celtic in a hypothetical "Northwest Indo-European" group. Today, Indo-European languages are spoken by billions of native speakers across all inhabited continents,[68] the largest number by far for any recognised language family. [342] In return the Wusun settled in the former territories of the Yuezhi as vassals of the Xiongnu. [web 27], The Kassite language has not been classified. (2018): "but the latest ancient DNA results from South Asia also lend weight to a spread of Indo-European languages via the steppe belt. 339345, G. Leitner, Australia's Many Voices: Australian EnglishThe National Language, 2004, pg. [vague], The Slavs are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group living in Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeast Europe, North Asia and Central Asia, who speak the Indo-European Slavic languages, and share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds. (2013) 23, R667-R670) from Anatolia to Europe. [note 17] According to Sjgren et al. Although some have proposed a common ancestor (the hypothetical Nostratic macrofamily), this is generally regarded as the result of intensive borrowing, which suggests that their homelands were located near each other. [note 29] Support for the Out of India theory IAT mostly exists among a subset of Indian scholars,[331][355][356][357][358] playing a significant role in Hindutva politics,[359][360][361][web 32][web 33] but has no relevance, let alone support, in mainstream scholarship. Bengali and Welsh belong to the same family of languages - the Indo-European family. Some authors group Thracian and Dacian into a southern Baltic linguistic family. [135] According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran. [51][52] Small groups can change a larger cultural area,[53][1] and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India. All articles are freely available online, ensuring maximum, worldwide dissemination of content. Despite being unaware of their common linguistic origin, diverse groups of Indo-European speakers continued to culturally dominate and often replace the indigenous languages of the western two-thirds of Eurasia. Bader (ed.). The people of that time are best described as proto-Thracians, which later developed in the Iron Age into Danubian-Carpathian Geto-Dacians as well as Thracians of the eastern Balkan Peninsula. Shared features with Balto-Slavic languages, on the other hand (especially present and preterit formations), might be due to later contacts. 3. [146], These movements of both Tocharians and Iranians into East Central Asia were not a mere footnote in the history of China but were part of a much wider picture involving the very foundations of the world's oldest surviving civilization."[147]. There are three views amongst scholars about how speakers of Armenian came to be in what is now Armenia. [312] From the Chinese term Wusun, Beckwith reconstructs the Old Chinese *swin, which he compares to the Old Indo-Aryan avin "the horsemen", the name of the Rigvedic twin equestrian gods. See more [1] The Indo-Iranian language and culture was further developed in the Andronovo culture (c. 1800800 BCE), and influenced by the BactriaMargiana Archaeological Complex (c. 24001600 BCE). [267] The indigenous people were Danubian farmers, and the invading people of the 3rd millennium BCE were Kurgan warrior-herders from the Ukrainian and Russian steppes. Similarly in Europe and the Urals the Uralic languages (such as Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian etc.) The migrations of the Germanic peoples in the 1st millennium were a formative element in the distribution of peoples in modern Europe. This is the original source of the English sounds written f, th, h and wh. [1] The Maykop culture shows the earliest evidence of the beginning Bronze Age, and bronze weapons and artifacts are introduced to the Yamnaya horizon. (2018), in the linguistic supplement to Damgaard et al. Proto-Indo-European | Politics.ie 2016), Caucasus and Swiss hunter-gatherer genomes, "European languages linked to migration from the east. [131] According to Anthony, if it separated from Proto-Indo-European, it likely did so between 4500 and 3500 BCE. The following suggestions have been made from 2015 to 2019: Soviet and post-Soviet Russian archaeologists have proposed an East Caspian influence, via the eastern Caspian areas, on the formation of the Don-Volga cultures. [45] The Corded Ware culture in Middle Europe (third millennium BCE),[web 1] which arose in the contact zone east of the Carpathian mountains, materialized with a massive migration from the Eurasian steppes to Central Europe,[8][web 2][9] probably played a central role in the spread of the pre-Germanic and pre-Balto-Slavic dialects. At least three major genetic changes have been described to date involving the Lena and Kolyma regions in East Siberia, and all are probably associated with some of the archaeological and linguistic developments that led to the known Early Modern distribution of languages in the Russian Far East and in Northern America. [174] Pre-Italic may have developed in Hungary, and spread toward Italy via the Urnfield culture and Villanovan culture. ", According to Damgaard et al. Indo-European Linguistics is a fully Open Access journal, sponsored by the UCLA Program in Indo-European Studies. Pit Grave culture) spread quickly across the Pontic-Caspian steppes between ca. The Balkan sprachbund even features areal convergence among members of very different branches. Mario Alinei (with reference to Francisco Villar, Bryant: "It must be stated immediately that there is an unavoidable corollary of an Indigenist position. One of the most important pieces of vocabulary was the word for [] Celtic deities are known as deuos meaning 'the shining', while the Vedic deities are known as devas, which means 'the shining ones'. The following is a tentative description of such intertwined linguistic-archaeological-genetic developments, based on the few available data from each field. See More Publisher: Brill Print Only ISSN: However, given that the glottalic theory never caught on and there was little archaeological support, the Gamkrelidze and Ivanov theory did not gain support until Renfrew's Anatolian theory revived aspects of their proposal.[19]. In the process of their own transformation, these Indo-Europeans influenced the world around them more than any other people before the rise of Islam."[158]. Despite the use of Hatti for their core territory, the Hittites should be distinguished from the Hattians, an earlier people who inhabited the same region (until the beginning of the 2nd millennium). [127], According to Mallory, it is likely that the Anatolians reached the Near East from the north, either via the Balkans or the Caucasus in the 3rd millennium BCE. Anthony considers it likely that the Maykop spoke a Northern Caucasian language not ancestral to Indo-European. After the Yuezhi were defeated by the Xiongnu, in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, later spawning the Jie people who dominated the Later Zhao until their complete extermination by Ran Min in the WeiJie war. [26][1], According to the widely accepted Kurgan hypothesis or Steppe theory, the Indo-European language and culture spread in several stages from the Proto-Indo-European Urheimat in the Eurasian Pontic steppes into Western Europe, Central and South Asia, through folk migrations and so-called elite recruitment. (2015) confirms the migration of Yamnaya-people into western Europe, forming the Corded Ware culture. Geographic Spread of the Indo-European Language Family The Indo-European family is not known to be linked to any other language family through any more distant genetic relationship, although several disputed proposals to that effect have been made. [174] While Anthony (2007) situates the development of pre-Germanic dialects east of the Carpathians, arguing for a migration up the Dniestr,[175] Anthony (2017) relates the origins of the Corded Ware to the early third century Yamna-migrations into the Danube-valley, stating that "[t]he migration stream that created these intrusive cemeteries now can be seen to have continued from eastern Hungary across the Carpathians into southern Poland, where the earliest material traits of the Corded ware horizon appeared. Online purchasing will be unavailable on Sunday 24th July between 8:00 and 13:30 BST due to essential maintenance work. The Kushan empire stretched from Turfan in the Tarim Basin to Pataliputra on the Gangetic plain at its greatest extent, and played an important role in the development of the Silk Road and the transmission of Buddhism to China. The Proto-Indo-Europeans were likely to have lived during the late Neolithic, or roughly the 4th millennium BCE. The study argues that more than 90% of Britain's Neolithic gene pool was replaced with the coming of the Beaker people,[181] who were around 50% WSH ancestry. The associated culture was initially a tribal, pastoral society centred in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent; it spread after 1200 BCE to the Ganges Plain, as it was shaped by increasing settled agriculture, a hierarchy of four social classes, and the emergence of monarchical, state-level polities. Map 2: The initial expansion of Indo-Europeans took place around 4000 BC, with one group heading southwards, while the main body expanded into the Pontic-Caspian steppe, a vast stretch of plains to the north of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea (click or tap on map to view full sized) Written evidence of Indo-European appeared during the Bronze Age in the form of Mycenaean Greek and the Anatolian languages of Hittite and Luwian. When thanks to the Indo-European telegraph line a message from London first reached Calcutta, India, in "only" 28 minutes, it was a world sensation. In Fr. Indo-European languages - Wikipedia While there can be no direct evidence of prehistoric languages, a synthesis of linguistics, archaeology, anthropology and genetics establish both the existence of Proto-Indo-European and the spread of its daughter dialects through migrations of large populations of its speakers, as well as the recruitment of new speakers through emulation of conquering elites. Contacts with Indo-Iranian, Yeniseian, Tocharian, Yukaghir, and Turkic, as well as onomastics and palaeolinguistics are taken into account to pinpoint the succeeding homelands and expansion territories. The oldest records are isolated Hittite words and names interspersed in texts that are otherwise in the unrelated Akkadian language, a Semitic language found in texts of the Assyrian colony of Kltepe in eastern Anatolia dating to the 20th century BC. [note 24][note 25], A Proto-Balto-Slavic language is reconstructable by the comparative method, descending from Proto-Indo-European by means of well-defined sound laws, and out of which modern Slavic and Baltic languages descended. [web 17] The Nordic Bronze Age developed from the absorption of the hunter-gatherer Pitted Ware culture (c.3500-2300 BCE) into the agricultural Battle Axe culture (c. 2800-2300 BCE),[222][223] which in turn developed from the superimposition of the Corded Ware culture (c. 3100-2350 BCE) upon the Funnelbeaker culture (c. 4300-2800 BCE) on the North European Plain, adjacent to the north of the Bell Beaker culture (c. 28002300 BCE). According to Anthony, referring to Wang et al. [web 25][web 26][web 27] The Kassites were members of a small military aristocracy but were efficient rulers and not locally unpopular. , Phrges or Phrges) were an ancient Indo-European people, who established their kingdom with a capital eventually at Gordium. Reconstruction of the hypotheses below is based on linguistic evidence using the comparative method. Britannica 15th edition 22:667, "The Tocharian problem", The supposed autochthony of Hittites, the Indo-Hittite hypothesis and migration of agricultural "Indo-European" societies became intrinsically linked together by C. Renfrew. [114] The adjacent BugDniester culture (63005500 BCE) was a local culture, from where cattle breeding spread to the steppe peoples. Also included are prehistorian Marcel Otte (Universit de Lige) and anthropologist Henry Harpending (University of Utah). Countless other aspects of world-view and religious practice show us interesting parallels. The "tree model" is considered an appropriate representation of the genealogical history of a language family if communities do not remain in contact after their languages have started to diverge. [200][note 18][note 19], According to Mallory (1999), the Corded Ware culture may be postulated as "the common prehistoric ancestor of the later Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, and possibly some of the Indo-European languages of Italy". Only in order to understand the Indo-European connection, amateur linguists must often compare more than two languages, and be willing to look for answers in the past. The 2009 Ethnologue estimates a total of about 439 Indo-European languages and dialects, about half of these (221) belonging to the Indo-Aryan subbranch based in South Asia. The social and religious impulses of Guru Nanak in sixteenth century India arrived to bring things back into balance. Some people speak Celtic languages in the other Celtic diaspora areas of the United States,[245] Canada, Australia,[246] and New Zealand. A major problem with Anthony's proposal is that those Yamna-migrants were R1b-carriers, which also appears in the Bell-Beaker people, while the Corded Ware people seem to have been R1a-carriers, which has not been found among Yamna-people. The Tocharians, or "Tokharians" (/tkrinz/ or /tkrinz/) were inhabitants of medieval oasis city-states on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China). [299] The characteristically Greek representation of word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels is shared, for one, by the Armenian language, which also seems to share some other phonological and morphological peculiarities of Greek; this has led some linguists to propose a hypothetically closer relationship between Greek and Armenian, although evidence remains scant.[300]. Another account was made by Filippo Sassetti, a merchant born in Florence in 1540, who travelled to the Indian subcontinent. The Balkan-Danubian complex is a set of cultures in Southeast Europe, east and west of the Carpathian mountains, from which the western Indo-European languages probably spread into western Europe from c. 3500 BCE. [66][note 4], Since the 2000s genetic studies are assuming a prominent role in the research on Indo-European migrations. [1] David Anthony has incorporated recent developments in his "revised steppe theory", which also supports a steppe origin of the Indo-European languages. Celtic languages, particularly Irish, were spoken in Australia before federation in 1901 and are still used there to some extent. [240] By the later La Tne period (c. 450 BCE up to the Roman conquest), this Celtic culture had expanded by diffusion or migration to the British Isles (Insular Celts), France and The Low Countries (Gauls), Bohemia, Poland and much of Central Europe, the Iberian Peninsula (Celtiberians, Celtici and Gallaeci) and Italy (Golaseccans, Lepontii, Ligures and Cisalpine Gauls)[241] and, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BCE, as far east as central Anatolia (Galatians). [157], The political history of the Indo-Europeans of Inner Asia from the 2nd century B.C. Because the signal-to-noise ratio in historical linguistics declines over time, at great enough time-depths it becomes open to reasonable doubt that one can even distinguish between signal and noise. [6][7], The eastern part of the Corded Ware culture contributed to the Sintashta culture (c. 21001800 BCE), where the Indo-Iranian language and culture emerged, and where the chariot was invented. One of the features of Baltic languages is the number of conservative or archaic features retained. [web 15] The turning point occurred around the 5th to 4th centuries BCE with a gradual Mongolization of Siberia, while Eastern Central Asia (East Turkistan) remained Caucasian and Indo-European-speaking until well into the 1st millennium CE. After the Yuezhi were defeated by the Xiongnu, in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, while the majority migrated west to the Ili Valley, where they displaced the Sakas (Scythians). Sons of *kwetwer, or the Indo-European 4 . However, several Kassite leaders bore Indo-European names,[web 28] and the Kassites worshipped several Indo-Aryan gods,[347][348] suggesting that the Kassites were under significant Indo-European influence. [100][82], Bomhard's alternative Caucasian substrate hypothesis proposes a "north-Caspian Indo-Uralic" Urheimat, involving an origin of PIE from the contact of two languages; a Eurasian steppe language from the north Caspian (related to Uralic) which acquired a substratal influence from a northwest Caucasian language. [55] However, in general this hypothesis is considered to attribute too much weight to the Anatolian evidence. (2015) envision a migration of both males and females from the Yamnaya horizon through western Ukraine and Poland into Germany. Of the 20 languages with the largest numbers of native speakers according to Ethnologue, twelve are Indo-European Spanish, English, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, German, Punjabi, Marathi, French, Urdu, and Italian accounting for over 1.7billion native speakers. 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